Non-Cooperation Movement

Non-Cooperation Movement

The non-cooperation movement in India was a series of movements by the nation under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The main idea of the non-cooperation movement in India was based on the nonviolent resistance to the British Government and Civil Disobedience. Mahatma Gandhi and the entire Indian National Congress headed the movement. The Non-Cooperation Movement marked the Gandhi Era in the phase of Indian Independence Movement in India. The movement began on September 1920 and continued till February 1922.
Factors Leading to Non-Cooperation Movement
These are following factors which led to the Non-Cooperation Movement in India:

• The viceroy of the British Parliament and Imperial Legislative Council introduced the Rowlatt Acts. This legislation imposed authoritarian restrictions upon the people of the nation. The police and army could search one's property or seize them and even arrest or detain someone without any evidence. This act came into effect on April 6, 1919 and angered the Indians. 
• The Indians were infuriated at the decision of the British authorities to send the Indian soldiers to participate in World War I. The authorities did this without consulting the Indians in any form.

Non-Cooperation Movement Facts

• In Champaran and Kheda poor farmers were forced to grow cash crops like tobacco, indigo, and cotton instead of food crops. Also, in spite of famine, they had to pay taxes. Later the Governments signed agreements where the farmers were allowed to grow their own crops and without paying taxes.
• Indian revolutionaries like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru and Rajendra Prasad joined hands with Mahatma Gandhi for the independence of India. 
• Khilafat committee was formed by the Muslim leaders to fight the British.
• In 1919, at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar a public meeting was held. British Troops under Reginald Dyer fired at people. This lead to the death of hundreds of men, women, and children. This is known as the Amritsar Massacre or the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and it is one of the most infamous events in Indian History of independence. 
• Gandhi came up with Satyagraha which was a protest nationwide, against the Rowlatt Acts. However, leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Bipin Chandra Pal, Annie Besant wanted to oppose the Government in other way.

SWARAJ

SWARAJ
The Extremists preached the idea of Swaraj which is an inalienable right of every man. To give it a new color Tikal went a step ahead than other leaders. He started Ganapati Festival in order to arouse nationalism in the minds of the Indians.

Attaching priority to self-rule, Eurobond wrote 'Political freedom is the life-breath of a nation/ Lala Lajpat Rai and Begin Chandra Pal also talked in the same line. They also put emphasis on national education.

Split in Congress (Surat Session, 1907)

Split in Congress (Surat Session, 1907)
The emergence of the Extremists put the Moderates in trouble. In 1905, two Extremists in Banaras Session of Indian National Congress opposed the move of the Moderates for welcoming the Prince of Wales who had to visit India.
In 1906, in the Calcutta Session, the bitterness was whitewashed outwardly when Dadabhai Naoroji was called back from London to preside over the session. The Extremists were able to pass resolution concerning Swadeshi, boycott, Swaraj and national education.
However, the language of the resolution was ambiguous and both the sides interpreted them in their favour. In 1907 at Surat Congress, the split became inevitable. When the Extremists wanted to endorse the resolutions of Calcutta Session in clear-cut terms, the Moderates opposed it tooth and nail. When Tikal came to deliver his speech, physical assault took place between the two groups and police intervened in the matter in restoring normalcy. The Extremists were stamped out from the Congress.

Soon, the Extremist movement became weak. In 1908 Tikal was imprisoned at Mandalay. Eurobond left politics and so also Begin Chandra Pal. Lala.Lajpat Rai left the country. However, the Extremists gave a new direction to the Indian politics. The British Government took immediate step to pacify the situation.

Morley-Minot Reforms (1909)

Morley-Minot Reforms (1909)

Morley-Minot Reforms of 1909 came as a panacea to the growing discontentment among the Indians. Lord Minot, the Viceroy of India and John Morley, the Secretary of State at London were liberal administrators. They studied the situation in India and accordingly suggested steps which were accepted by the British Parliament. This was famous as Indian Council Act.

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Triple Alliance

Triple Alliance

Triple Alliance, secret agreement between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed in May 1882 and renewed periodically until World War I. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been closely allied since 1879. Italy sought their support against France shortly after losing North African ambitions to the French. The treaty provided that Germany and Austria-Hungary were to assist Italy if it were attacked by France without Italian provocation; Italy would assist Germany if Germany was attacked by France. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral. This abstention would have the effect of freeing Austrian troops that would otherwise have been needed to guard the Austrian-Italian border.

When the treaty was renewed in February 1887, Italy gained an empty promise of German support of Italian colonial ambitions in North Africa in return for Italy’s continued friendship. Austria-Hungary had to be pressured by German chancellor Otto von Bismarck into accepting the principles of consultation and mutual agreement with Italy on any territorial changes initiated in the Balkans or on the coasts and islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Italy and Austria-Hungary did not overcome their basic conflict of interest in this region, the treaty notwithstanding. On Nov. 1, 1902, five months after the Triple Alliance was renewed, Italy reached an understanding with France that each would remain neutral in the event of an attack on the other. This entente nullified Italy’s pledges to the other members of the Triple Alliance. Although the alliance was again renewed in 1907 and 1912, Italy entered World War I in May 1915, in opposition to Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Indian Councils Act 1909

The Indian Councils Act 1909 (9 Edw. 7 c. 4), commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that brought about a limited increase in the involvement of Indians in the governance of British India.
John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the Conservative Governor-General of India, The Earl of Minto, believed that cracking down on uprising in Bengal was necessary but not sufficient for restoring stability to the British Raj after Lord Curzon's partitioning of Bengal. They believed that a dramatic step was required to put heart into loyal elements of the Indian upper classes and the growing Westernised section of the population.

They produced the Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto reforms), these reforms did not go any significant distance toward meeting the Indian National Congress demand for 'the system of government obtaining in Self-Governing British Colonies'.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Biography

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Biography
Born: April 14, 1891
Died: December 6, 1956
Achievements: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was elected as the chairman of the drafting committee that was constituted by the Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution for the independent India; he was the first Law Minister of India; conferred Bharat Ratna in 1990.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar is viewed as messiah of dalits and downtrodden in India. He was the chairman of the drafting committee that was constituted by the Constituent Assembly in 1947 to draft a constitution for the independent India. He played a seminal role in the framing of the constitution. Bhimrao Ambedkar was also the first Law Minister of India. For his yeoman service to the nation, B.R. Ambedkar was bestowed with Bharat Ratna in 1990.
Dr.Bhimrao Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891 in Mhow (presently in Madhya Pradesh). He was the fourteenth child of Ramji and Bhimabai Sakpal Ambavedkar. B.R. Ambedkar belonged to the "untouchable" Mahar Caste. His father and grandfather served in the British Army. In those days, the government ensured that all the army personnel and their children were educated and ran special schools for this purpose. This ensured good education for Bhimrao Ambedkar, which would have otherwise been denied to him by the virtue of his caste.
Bhimrao Ambedkar experienced caste discrimination right from the childhood. After his retirement, Bhimrao's father settled in Satara Maharashtra. Bhimrao was enrolled in the local school. Here, he had to sit on the floor in one corner in the classroom and teachers would not touch his notebooks. In spite of these hardships, Bhimrao continued his studies and passed his Matriculation examination from Bombay University with flying colours in 1908. Bhim Rao Ambedkar joined the Elphinstone College for further education. In 1912, he graduated in Political Science and Economics from Bombay University and got a job in Baroda.
In 1913, Bhimrao Ambedkar lost his father. In the same year Maharaja of Baroda awarded scholarship to Bhim Rao Ambedkar and sent him to America for further studies. Bhimrao reached New York in July 1913. For the first time in his life, Bhim Rao was not demeaned for being a Mahar. He immersed himself in the studies and attained a degree in Master of Arts and a Doctorate in Philosophy from Columbia University in 1916 for his thesis "National Dividend for India: A Historical and Analytical Study." From America, Dr.Ambedkar proceeded to London to study economics and political science. But the Baroda government terminated his scholarship and recalled him back.
The Maharaja of Baroda appointed Dr. Ambedkar as his political secretary. But no one would take orders from him because he was a Mahar. Bhimrao Ambedkar returned to Bombay in November 1917. With the help of Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur, a sympathizer of the cause for the upliftment of the depressed classes, he started a fortnightly newspaper, the "Mooknayak" (Dumb Hero) on January 31, 1920. The Maharaja also convened many meetings and conferences of the "untouchables" which Bhimrao addressed. In September 1920, after accumulating sufficient funds, Ambedkar went back to London to complete his studies. He became a barrister and got a Doctorate in science.
After completing his studies in London, Ambedkar returned to India. In July 1924, he founded the Bahishkrit Hitkaraini Sabha (Outcastes Welfare Association). The aim of the Sabha was to uplift the downtrodden socially and politically and bring them to the level of the others in the Indian society. In 1927, he led the Mahad March at the Chowdar Tank at Colaba, near Bombay, to give the untouchables the right to draw water from the public tank where he burnt copies of the 'Manusmriti' publicly.

In 1929, Ambedkar made the controversial decision to co-operate with the all-British Simon Commission which was to look into setting up a responsible Indian Government in India. The Congress decided to boycott the Commission and drafted its own version of a constitution for free India. The Congress version had no provisions for the depressed classes. Ambedkar became more skeptical of the Congress's commitment to safeguard the rights of the depressed classes.
When a separate electorate was announced for the depressed classes under Ramsay McDonald 'Communal Award', Gandhiji went on a fast unto death against this decision. Leaders rushed to Dr. Ambedkar to drop his demand. On September 24, 1932, Dr. Ambedkar and Gandhiji reached an understanding, which became the famous Poona Pact. According to the pact the separate electorate demand was replaced with special concessions like reserved seats in the regional legislative assemblies and Central Council of States
Dr. Ambedkar attended all the three Round Table Conferences in London and forcefully argued for the welfare of the "untouchables". Meanwhile, British Government decided to hold provincial elections in 1937. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar set up the "Independent Labor Party" in August 1936 to contest the elections in the Bombay province. He and many candidates of his party were elected to the Bombay Legislative Assembly.
In 1937, Dr. Ambedkar introduced a Bill to abolish the "khoti" system of land tenure in the Konkan region, the serfdom of agricultural tenants and the Mahar "watan" system of working for the Government as slaves. A clause of an agrarian bill referred to the depressed classes as "Harijans," or people of God. Bhimrao was strongly opposed to this title for the untouchables. He argued that if the "untouchables" were people of God then all others would be people of monsters. He was against any such reference. But the Indian National Congress succeeded in introducing the term Harijan. Ambedkar felt bitter that they could not have any say in what they were called.
In 1947, when India became independent, the first Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, invited Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, who had been elected as a Member of the Constituent Assembly from Bengal, to join his Cabinet as a Law Minister. The Constituent Assembly entrusted the job of drafting the Constitution to a committee and Dr. Ambedkar was elected as Chairman of this Drafting Committee. In February 1948, Dr. Ambedkar presented the Draft Constitution before the people of India; it was adopted on November 26, 1949.
In October 1948, Dr. Ambedkar submitted the Hindu Code Bill to the Constituent Assembly in an attempt to codify the Hindu law. The Bill caused great divisions even in the Congress party. Consideration for the bill was postponed to September 1951. When the Bill was taken up it was truncated. A dejected Ambedkar relinquished his position as Law Minister.

On May 24, 1956, on the occasion of Buddha Jayanti, he declared in Bombay, that he would adopt Buddhism in October. On 0ctober 14, 1956 he embraced Buddhism along with many of his followers. On December 6, 1956, Baba Saheb Dr. B.R. Ambedkar died peacefully in his sleep.

Indian High courts act 1861

 Indian High courts act 1861

Company kept judicial and executive functions separate since year 1793.
But this system was not perfect; the appointment procedure of judges was faulty.
Executive became judge and judge became executive vice versa because of lack of experience judiciary suffered as executive failed to do justice to judiciary.

In 1868, company officers pointed out that native judges and pleaders who had received a regular legal education at the Calcutta University had a better knowledge than the civilian, executive judges.
Therefore Bengal officers proposed the establishment of a separate judicial service.
Sir Henry Maine in 1868 condemned the [British] district judges as shamefully inefficient.
In year 1872 Law member Stephen supported the idea of a separate judicial service but nothing happened.
In 1924, the Rankin committee disfavored appointment of civilian as district judges, saying that the subordinate judges got more knowledge than civilian judges as subordinate judges got experience and legal education.
But nothing happened.

The Indian High Courts Act 1861 –

The Indian High Courts Act was passed by the British Parliament on the 6th August, 1861 and was titled as an act for establishing high courts of judicature in India.
This legislation contained only 19 sections only.
Its main function was to abolish the supreme courts and the Sadar Adalats in the three Presidencies and to establish the high courts in their place.
The records and document of the various courts became the records and documents of the High Court concerned.
It gave power authority in Her Majesty to issue letters patent under the great seal of the United Kingdom, to erect and establish High courts of judicature at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.

Each High court was to consist of a chief justice and as many puisne judges not exceeding fifteen as her majesty might think to fit to appoint.
Who became the high court judge or who was eligible to become the high court judge?
Judges were selected out of the following categories of persons
1. Barrister must have 5 years or more experience
2. members of the covenanted civil service of not less than ten years standing who should have served as Zillah judges for at least three years of that period
3. Persons who shall have held judicial office not inferior to that of principal sadar amen or judge of small cause court for a period of not less than five years.
4. Person who have been pleaders of a Sadar court or high court for a period of not less than ten years.
But the rule was made that, not less than one third of the judges in a High court, including chief justice were to be barristers and not less than one-third of the judges were to be members of the covenanted civil service.
The judges of the High court were to be held office during her majesty’s pleasure.
Each high court was to have and exercise all such civil and criminal admiralty and vice-admiralty, testamentary, intestate and matrimonial jurisdiction and original and appellate
The High Court was to have superintendence over all courts subject to its appellate jurisdiction.
It got power, authority to call for return, to transfer any suit or appeal from one court to another and to make and issue general rules for regulating the practice and proceedings of such courts.
The charter for the Calcutta high court was issued on May 14, 1862 and was published in Calcutta on the 1st July 1862 establishing the high court from the next day.
The charter for the high courts of Bombay and Madras were issued on June 26, 1862 and these courts were inaugurated on the 14th and 15th august 1862.

Champaran and Kheda Satyagrah

The first Satyagraha revolutions inspired by Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Independence Movement occurred in Kheda district of Gujarat and the Champaran district of Bihar between the years of 1918 and 1919. Champaran Satyagraha was the first to be started but the word Satyagraha was used for the first time in Anti Rowlatt agitation.

Campota, Bihar

In Champaran, a district in state of Bihar, tens of thousands of landless serfs, indentured laborers and poor farmers were forced to grow indigo and other cash crops instead of the food crops necessary for their survival. These goods were bought from them at a very low price. Suppressed by the ruthless militias of the landlords (mostly British), they were given measly compensation, leaving them mired in extreme poverty. The villages were kept extremely dirty and unhygienic, and alcoholism, untouchability and purdah were rampant. Now in the throes of a devastating famine, the British levied an oppressive tax which they insisted on increasing in rate. Without food and without money, the situation was growing progressively unlivable and the peasants in Champaran revolted against indigo plant cultivation in 1914 (at Pipra) and 1916(Turkaulia) and Raj Kumar Shukla took Mahatma Gandhi to Champaran and the Champaran Satyagraha began. Gandhi arrived in Champaran with a team of^[1] eminent lawyers, comprising^[2] of Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha and others including Acharya kripalani.^[3]
  Gandhi's solution
While many civic groups sent petitions and published editorials, Gandhi proposed satyagraha - non-violence, mass civil disobedience. While it was strictly non-violent, Gandhi was proposing real action, a real revolt that the oppressed peoples of India were dying to undertake..
Gandhi also insisted that neither the protestors in Bihar nor in Gujarat allude to or try to propagate the concept of Swaraj, or Independence. This was not about political freedom, but a revolt against abject tyranny amidst a terrible humanitarian disaster.

 1917 Champaran Satyagraha

Gandhi established an ashram in Champaran, organizing scores of his veteran supporters and fresh volunteers from the region. He organized a detailed study and survey of the villages, accounting the atrocities and terrible episodes of suffering, including the general state of degenerate living.
Building on the confidence of villagers, he began leading the clean-up of villages, building of schools and hospitals and encouraging the village leadership to undo purdah, untouchability and the suppression of women. He was joined by many young nationalists from all over India, including Brajkishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Ram Navami Prasad and Jawaharlal Nehru.

But his main assault came as he was arrested by police on the charge of creating unrest and was ordered to leave the province. Hundreds of thousands of people protested and rallied outside the jail, police stations and courts demanding his release, which the court unwillingly did. Gandhi led organized protests and strike against the landlords, who with the guidance of the British government, signed an agreement granting more compensation and control over farming for the poor farmers of the region, and cancellation of revenue hikes and collection until the famine ended. It was during this agitation, that Gandhi was addressed by the people as Bapu (Father) and Mahatma (Great Soul).

Charter Act of 1793

The East India Company Act 1793, also known as the Charter Act of 1793, was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain which renewed the charter issued to the British East India Company, and continued the Company's rule in India.
In contrast with legislation concerning British India proposed in the preceding two decades, the 1793 Act "passed with minimal trouble".^[2] The Act made only fairly minimal changes to either the system of government in India or British oversight of the Company's activities. Most importantly, the Company's trade monopoly was continued for a further 20 years. Salaries for the staff and paid members of the Board of Control were also now charged to the Company. Other provisions of the Act included:

• The Governor-General was granted extensive powers over the subordinate presidencies.
• The Governor-General's power of over-ruling his council was affirmed, and extended over the Governors of the subordinate presidencies.
• Senior officials were forbidden from leaving India without permission.
• Royal approval was mandated for the appointment of the Governor-General, the governors, and the Commander-in-Chief.

The Company's charter was next renewed by the Charter Act of 1813.

विभाजन की प्रक्रिया

विभाजन की प्रक्रिया

भारत के विभाजन के ढांचे को '3 जून प्लान' या माउण्टबैटन योजना का नाम दिया गया। भारत और पाकिस्तान के बीच की सीमारेखा लंदन के वकील सर सिरिल रैडक्लिफ ने तय की। हिन्दू बहुमत वाले इलाके भारत में और मुस्लिम बहुमत वाले इलाके पाकिस्तान में शामिल किए गए। 18 जुलाई 1947 को ब्रिटिश संसद ने 'भारतीय स्वतंत्रता कानून' (इंडियन इंडिपेंडेंस एक्ट) पारित किया जिसमें विभाजन की प्रक्रिया को अंतिम रूप दिया गया। इस समय ब्रिटिश भारत में बहुत से राज्य थे जिनके राजाओं के साथ ब्रिटिश सरकार ने तरह-तरह के समझौते कर रखे थे। इन 565 राज्यों को आज़ादी दी गयी कि वे चुनें कि वे भारत या पाकिस्तान किस में शामिल होना चाहेंगे। अधिकतर राज्यों ने बहुमत धर्म के आधार पर देश चुना। जिन राज्यों के शासकों ने बहुमत धर्म के अनुकूल देश चुना उनके एकीकरण में काफ़ी विवाद हुआ। विभाजन के बाद पाकिस्तान को संयुक्त राष्ट्र में नए सदस्य के रूप में शामिल किया गया और भारत ने ब्रिटिश भारत की कुर्सी संभाली।

भारत का विभाजन

भारत का विभाजन
माउंटबेटन योजना के आधार पर तैयार भारतीय स्वतंत्रा अधिनियम१९४७ के आधार पर किया गया। इस अधिनियम में काहा गया कि 15 अगस्त 1947 को भारत एवं पाकिस्तान नामक दो अधिराज्य बना दिए जाएंगें और उनको ब्रितानी सरकार सत्ता सौंप देगी। स्वतंत्रता के साथ ही 14 अगस्त को पाकिस्तानी डोमिनियन (बाद में इस्लामी जम्हूरिया ए पाकिस्तान) और 15 अगस्त को भारतीय यूनियन (बाद में भारत गणराज्य) की संस्थापना की गई। इस घटनाक्रम में मुख्यतः ब्रिटिश भारत के बंगाल प्रांत को पूर्वी पाकिस्तान और भारत के पश्चिम बंगाल राज्य में बाँट दिया गया और इसी तरह ब्रिटिश भारत के पंजाब प्रांत को पश्चिमी पाकिस्तान के पंजाब प्रांत और भारत के पंजाब राज्य में बाँट दिया गया। इसी दौरान ब्रिटिश भारत में से सीलोन (अब श्रीलंका) और बर्मा (अब म्यांमार) को भी अलग किया गया, लेकिन इसे भारत के विभाजन में नहीं शामिल किया जाता है।
15 अगस्त 1947 की आधी रात को भारत और पाकिस्तान कानूनी तौर पर दो स्वतंत्र राष्ट्र बने। लेकिन पाकिस्तान की सत्ता परिवर्तन की रस्में 14 अगस्त को कराची में की गईं ताकि आखिरी ब्रिटिश वाइसराय लुइस माउंटबैटन कराची और नई दिल्ली दोनों जगह की रस्मों में हिस्सा ले सके। इसलिए पाकिस्तान में स्वतंत्रता दिवस 14 अगस्त और भारत में 15 अगस्त को मनाया जाता है।
भारत के विभाजन से करोड़ों लोग प्रभावित हुए। विभाजन के दौरान हुई हिंसा में करीब 5 लाख लोग मारे गए, और करीब 1.45 करोड़ शरणार्थियों ने अपना घर-बार छोड़कर बहुमत संप्रदाय वाले देश में शरण ली।
भारत के ब्रिटिश शासकों ने हमेशा ही भारत में "फूट डालो और राज्य करो" की नीति का अनुसरण किया। उन्होंने भारत के नागरिकों को संप्रदाय के अनुसार अलग-अलग समूहों में बाँट कर रखा। उनकी कुछ नीतियाँ हिन्दुओं के प्रति भेदभाव करती थीं तो कुछ मुसलमानों के प्रति। 20वीं सदी आते-आते मुसलमान हिन्दुओं के बहुमत से डरने लगे और हिन्दुओं को लगने लगा कि ब्रिटिश सरकार और भारतीय नेता मुसलमानों को विशेषाधिकार देने और हिन्दुओं के प्रति भेदभाव करने में लगे हैं। इसलिए भारत में जब आज़ादी की भावना उभरने लगी तो आज़ादी की लड़ाई को नियंत्रित करने में दोनों संप्रदायों के नेताओं में होड़ रहने लगी।
सन् 1906 में ढाका में बहुत से मुसलमान नेताओं ने मिलकर मुस्लिम लीग की स्थापना की। इन नेताओं का विचार था कि मुसलमानों को बहुसंख्यक हिन्दुओं से कम अधिकार उपलब्ध थे तथा भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस हिन्दुओं का प्रतिनिधित्व करती थी। मुस्लिम लीग ने अलग-अलग समय पर अलग-अलग मांगें रखीं। 1930 में मुस्लिम लीग के सम्मेलन में प्रसिद्ध उर्दू कवि मुहम्मद इक़बाल ने एक भाषण में पहली बार मुसलमानों के लिए एक अलग राज्य की माँग उठाई। 1935 में सिंध प्रांत की विधान सभा ने भी यही मांग उठाई। इक़बाल और मौलाना मुहम्मद अली जौहर ने मुहम्मद अली जिन्ना को इस मांग का समर्थन करने को कहा। इस समय तक जिन्ना हिन्दू-मुस्लिम एकता के पक्ष में लगते थे, लेकिन धीरे-धीरे उन्होने आरोप लगाना शुरू कर दिया कि कांग्रेसी नेता मुसलमानों के हितों पर ध्यान नहीं दे रहे। लाहौर में 1940 के मुस्लिम लीग सम्मेलन में जिन्ना ने साफ़ तौर पर कहा कि वह दो अलग-अलग राष्ट्र चाहते हैं

"हिन्दुओं और मुसलमानों के धर्म, विचारधाराएँ, रीति-रिवाज़ और साहित्य बिलकुल अलग-अलग हैं।.. एक राष्ट्र बहुमत में और दूसरा अल्पमत में, ऐसे दो राष्ट्रों को साथ बाँध कर रखने से असंतोष बढ़ कर रहेगा और अंत में ऐसे राज्य की बनावट का विनाश हो कर रहेगा।"

हिन्दू महासभा जैसे हिन्दू संगठन भारत के बंटवारे के प्रबल विरोधी थे, लेकिन मानते थे कि हिन्दुओं और मुसलमानों में मतभेद हैं। 1937 में इलाहाबाद में हिन्दू महासभा के सम्मेलन में एक भाषण में वीर सावरकर ने कहा था - आज के दिन भारत एक राष्ट्र नहीं है, यहाँ पर दो राष्ट्र हैं-हिन्दू और मुसलमान। कांग्रेस के अधिकतर नेता पंथ-निरपेक्ष थे और संप्रदाय के आधार पर भारत का विभाजन करने के विरुद्ध थे। महात्मा गांधी का विश्वास था कि हिन्दू और मुसलमान साथ रह सकते हैं और उन्हें साथ रहना चाहिये। उन्होंने विभाजन का घोर विरोध किया: "मेरी पूरी आत्मा इस विचार के विरुद्ध विद्रोह करती है कि हिन्दू और मुसलमान दो विरोधी मत और संस्कृतियाँ हैं। ऐसे सिद्धांत का अनुमोदन करना मेरे लिए ईश्वर को नकारने के समान है।"बहुत सालों तक गांधी और उनके अनुयायियों ने कोशिश की कि मुसलमान कांग्रेस को छोड़ कर न जाएं, और इस प्रक्रिया में हिन्दू और मुसलमान गरम दलों के नेता उनसे बहुत चिढ़ गए।
अंग्रेजों ने योजनाबद्ध रूप से हिन्दू और मुसलमान दोनों संप्रदायों के प्रति शक को बढ़ावा दिया। मुस्लिम लीग ने अगस्त 1946 में सिधी कार्यवाही दिवस मनाया और कलकत्ता में भीषण दंगे किये जिसमें करीब 5000 लोग मारे गये और बहुत से घायल हुए। ऐसे माहौल में सभी नेताओं पर दबाव पड़ने लगा कि वे विभाजन को स्वीकार करें ताकि देश पूरी तरह युद्ध की स्थिति में न आ जाए।

राजस्‍थान

राजस्‍थान

राजस्‍थान का नामकरणकर्ता  –  कर्नल जेम्‍स टॉड

• राजस्‍थान की स्थिति  –  राजस्‍थान भारत के उत्‍तरी-पश्चिमी भाग में 23’’ 3’ उत्‍तरी अक्षांश से 30’’ 12’ उत्‍तरी अक्षांश तथा 69’’ 30’ पूर्वी देशान्‍तर से 78’’ 17’ पूर्वी देशान्‍तर के बीच स्थित है
• क्षेत्रफल  – 342239 वर्ग किमी
• राजस्‍थान के सीमावर्ती राज्‍य
• पूर्वी सीमा पर  -  उत्‍तर प्रदेश
• उत्‍तरी सीमा पर  - पंजाब व हरियाणा
• दक्षिणी सीमा पर  - गुजरात
• सर्वाधिक सीमा वाल पङोसी राज्‍य  - मध्‍य प्रदेश
• न्‍यूनतम सीमा वाल पङोसी राज्‍य  -  पंजाब
• राज्‍य से लगने वाली अन्‍तराष्‍टीय सीमा  -  पाकिस्‍तान
• पाकिस्‍तान से सीमा से लगने वाले जिल  -  श्रीगंगानगर, बीकानेर, जैसलमेर व बाङमेर
• राज्‍य में पाकिस्‍तान की सीमा का प्रारम्‍भ स्‍थान  -  हिन्‍दुमलकोट (श्रीगंगानगर)
• क्षेत्रफल के आधार पर सबसे बङा जिला   -   जैसलमेर
• क्षेत्रफल के आधार पा सबसे छोटा जिला   -   धौलपुर
• राज्‍य में जिले   -   33 जिलें
• उपखण्‍ड   -   188 (2005)
• सम्‍भागों की संख्‍या  -   7
• देश में सर्वप्रथम पंचायती राज का श्रीगणेश करने वाला जिला   -  नागौर
• राजस्‍थान की भाषा   -   हिन्‍दी व राजस्‍थानी
• राजधानी   -   जयपुर (1727 में सवाई जयसिंह द्वारा स्‍थापित)
• सवोच्‍च पर्वत शिखर   -   गुरू शिखर, 1727 मीटर
• सार्वाधिक गर्म जिला   -   बीकानेर
• सार्वाधिक आर्द्र जिला   -   झालावाङ
• राज्‍य की सबसे लम्‍बी नदी   -  चम्‍बल नदी, 966 किमी
• राज्‍य में पूर्ण बहाव के आधार पर सबसे लम्‍बी नदी   -  बनास
• सबसे बङी खारे पानी की झील   -   सांभर
• सबसे बङी मीठे पानी की झील   -  जयसमंद
• सबसे प्राचीन पर्वत श्रखला  -   अरावील
• राजस्‍थान लोक सेवा आयोग  -   अजमेर
• राजस्‍थान उच्‍च न्‍यायालय  -  जोधपुर
• राजकीय महाविधालय  -   126
• राज्‍य का प्रमुख उधोग  -  सूती वस्‍त्र उधोग
• राज्‍य हवाई उड्रडे  - जयपुर, जोधपुर, उदयपुर व कोटा
• सीसा, जस्‍ता, टंगस्‍टन व तॉबा उत्‍पादन की द़ष्टि से राज्‍य का देश में स्‍थान  - प्रथम
• राजस्‍व प्राप्ति में राज्‍य का देश में स्‍थान  - आठवां
• क़षि उत्‍पादन की द़ष्टि से राज्‍य का देश में स्‍थान  - सातवां
• सर्वाधिक पशु संख्‍या वाला जिला   - उदयपुर
• सर्वाधिक गायों वाला जिला   -  उदयपुर
• राजस्‍थान का हदय   - अजमेर
• राजस्‍थान का खजुराहो   - जगत, उदयपुर
• राजस्‍थान का गौरव   - चितौङगढ
• राजस्‍थान दिवस   - 30 मार्च
• राजस्‍थान स्‍थापना दिवस   - 1 नवम्‍बर, 1956
• राजस्‍थान राज्‍य पशु   - चिंकारा
• राजस्‍थान का राज्‍य पक्षी   - गोडावण
• राजस्‍थान का राज्‍य पुष्‍प  - रोहिङा के फुल
• राजस्‍थान राज्‍य व़क्ष  - खेजङी
• रास्‍थान का ऩत्‍य   - घूमर
• राजस्‍थान प्रथम मुख्‍यमंत्री   - श्री हीरालाल शास्‍त्री
• राज्‍य की प्रथम महिला मुख्‍यमंत्री   -  श्रीमती वसुन्‍धरा राजे
• प्रथम निर्वाचित मुख्‍यमंत्री   - श्री टीकाराम पालीवाल
• राज्‍य के प्रथम राज्‍यपाल   - श्री गुरूमुख निहालंसिंह
• प्रथम मुख्‍य न्‍यायाधीश   -  श्री कमलकांत वर्मा
• प्रथम विधान सभा अध्‍यक्ष   -  श्री नरोत्‍तम जोशी
• राज्‍य की प्रथम महिला विधान सभा अध्‍यक्ष   - श्रीमती सुमित्रा सिंह
• राज्‍य की पहली महिला प्‍लाइंग ऑफीसर   -  निवेदिता
• राज्‍य की पथाम महिला पायलट   -  नम्रता भट्ट
• पहली राजस्‍थानी फिल्‍म   -  निजराणो,  1942
• इंग्लिश चैनल तैरकर पार करने वाली रास्‍थान की प्रथम महिला   -  भक्ति शर्मा, जुलाई 2006

राजस्‍थान सामान्‍य ज्ञान - राजस्‍थान का भौगोलिक स्‍वरूप

राजस्‍थान के प्राक़तिक विभाग
1 पूर्वी राजस्‍थान – जयपुर, दौसा, अलवर, धौलपुर, सवाई माधोपुर, भरतपुर, टोंक, सीकर, अजमेर व करौली
2 दक्षिण-पूर्वी राजस्‍थान – कोटा, बारां, बूंदी एवं झालावाङ
3 दक्षिण राजस्‍थान – उदयपुर, राजसमंद, भीलवाङा, चितौङगढ, डूंगरपुर व बांसवाङा
4 पश्चिमी राजस्‍थान – जैसलमेर, नारौग, जोधपुर, बाङमेर, जालौर, सिरोही व पाली
5 उत्‍तरी राजस्‍थान – बीकानेर, श्रीगंगानगर, हनुमानगढ व चुरू

राजस्‍थान की प्रमुख नदियों का वर्गीकरण
1 अरब सागर की ओर बहने वाली नदियां – लूणी, माही, सोम, जाखम, साबरमती व प बनास
2 गंगा-यमुना दोआब की ओर बहने वाली नदियां – चम्‍बल, बनास, काली सिन्‍ध, कोठारी, खारी, मेज, मोरेल, बाणगंगा और गम्‍भीर
3 आन्‍तरिक प्रवाह वाली नदियां – घग्‍घर, सोता-साहिबी, काकणी, मेढां, खण्‍डेर, कांटली नदी

राज्‍य की प्रमुख नदियों की लम्‍बाई

1 माही नदी – 576 किमी
2 लूणी नदी – 320 किमी
3 चम्‍बल नदी – 966 किमी
4 बाणगंगा नदी – 380 किमी
5 कोठारी नदी – 145 किमी

राजस्‍थान की झीलों का वर्गीकरण
1 मीठे पानी की झीलें – जयसमंद, राजसमंद, पिछोला, आनासागर, फतेहसागर, उदयसागर, उम्‍मेदसागर, फांयसागर, गैब सागर, सिलीसेढ, कोलायत, पुष्‍कर, बालसमन्‍द, नक्‍की व नवलखा आदि
2 खारे पानी की झीलें – सांभर, पचपद्रा, डीडवाना, फलौदी, कावोद, लूणकरणसर, कछेर व तालछापर

राजस्‍थान में वर्षा जल संग्रहण के उपाय
1 टांका – ये सामान्‍यत चूना, ईंट, पत्‍थर से मकानों के तलघर में बने हुए छोटे हौज होते है, यह पानी पीने के काम लिया जाता है
2 खङीन – मरूस्‍थली भागों में यह एक मंद ढाल वाला ढालू मैदान होता है, पानी सूखने के बाद इसकी दलदली मिट्टी मे रबी की फसल बोई जाती है
3 बाबङियां – बावङियों का निर्माण गांवों या शहरों के समीप किया जाता है जिनमें वर्षा का पानी इकट्ठा होता रहता है,
4 नाडी – ये छोटे-छोटे कच्‍चे तालाब होते हे तथा गांव के बाहर निचले किनारे पर बनाये जाते है
5 सागर व तालाब – इनके जल का उपयोग सिंचाई के लिए किया जाता है

राजस्‍थान के प्रमुख जल प्रपात
1 चूलिया जल प्रपात – चम्‍बल नदी
2 भीमताल जल प्रपात – मांगली नदी

राजस्‍थान की नदियों के उपनाम
1 चम्‍बल नदी – उप नाम कामधेनु, चर्मण्‍वती
2 बाणगंगा – अर्जुन की गंगा
3 बनास – वन की आशा
4 घग्‍घर – म़त नदी
5 माही – बागङ की गंगा